DNA - Nature
Domestication
It’s likely that wolves became domesticated by hanging around human settlements. Only the most curious and least aggressive would have come close enough to eat the waste, and not be killed by the humans living there. The friendliest wolves would have been more successful. Over time their physical appearance changed, along with their behaviour patterns. These proto-dogs moved into the human settlements at some point, and then man began to select the ‘best’ ones for guarding or hunting. Probably not by intentionally allowing the chosen ones to mate, but by killing the ones they didn’t want.
Domestication leads to increased tolerance, co-operation and sociability; and decreased aggression, competition and territorialism. It changes both behaviour and appearance. Breeding for specific skills and body shapes led to the creation of breeds-types. There are hounds for hunting by sight (Greyhounds, Whippets) or by smell (Bloodhounds, Bassets); hunters to flush out and fetch game (Springer Spaniels, Flat Coat Retrievers); herders (Border Collies and German Shepherds) and flock guarders (Estrella Mountain Dogs); protection dogs (Dobermans) and other types of working dogs (e.g. Dalmatians for running with carriages); and companions (Pomeranians, Pugs). The UK Kennel Club recognises over 200 breeds of dog that can be bred and shown.
Wolf clues
Should we think of dogs as completely separate from wolves, or are there things we can learn from them? How wolves interact and communicate with others in their pack, how they hunt, and how they deal with outsiders threatening their territory… these all help us understand dogs’ sociability, their hunting drive, and their need to defend. However, it’s equally important to recognise that despite sharing similar behaviours with their ancestors, dogs are dogs, not domesticated wolves, and the best way to understand them is to study them in what has become their ‘natural’ environment – as a companion to people, in our homes. And dogs are dogs, and aren’t human. Although they experience complex emotions like us, and we enjoy their company, they are a different species to us, with different needs and drives. It’s important for us to treat them as dogs, with empathy and respect.
Breed standards
A good way to know what you’re getting (or have already got), is to check the Kennel Club breed standards. A Border Terrier behaves differently to an Italian Greyhound; and a Shetland Sheepdog different to a Saint Bernard. Find out what they were originally bred for, and what their temperament should be. Also look at other descriptions on the internet. Dogs described as ‘independently-minded’, ‘strong-willed’, or ‘protective of the family unit’ may not make a calm family pet. Aim to get a suitable breed for your situation, not just because you think they’re cute or help you to fit in with a particular group of people.
Show or working
To add to this, there are difference between ‘show’ and ‘working’, as well as variations within specific breeding lines. It’s best to meet some relatives of your potential dog, to see if there are any shared traits. One of the more obvious differences can be seen in Cocker Spaniels. A show Cocker is generally stockier and calmer; while a working Cocker is leaner and goes through life at a hundred miles an hour, always ready to train, or hunt, or play, seemingly with a never-ending supply of energy and enthusiasm. A working Cocker is perfect for a budding agility competitor who’ll want to train every day, not such a good choice if you just want a slow wander to the pub for a lazy lunch!
Cross-breeds
Cross-breeds may take on the good bits of each breed – or possibly the worst. Crosses that are bred with other similar crosses, will become a breed in their own right (with all the usual problems that come from both a limited gene pool, and breeding that’s designed to achieve particular physical attributes, without necessarily focusing on temperament).
The breeder's role
Responsible breeding requires the careful choice of parents for temperament and adaptability, as well as skill and physical appearance. A good breeder selects the mum and dad who will give their puppies the best chance in life, and will only place their puppies in suitable homes. Dogs from puppy-farms, which are bred for appearance only (whatever is currently popular), can grow up with physical and/or behavioural issues both through the influence of genes, the poor environment, inadequate nutrition, and a mum under stress. They may also be taken away from their mums too soon, and miss out on important life lessons.
Intelligence
There have been many studies published about intelligence between different breeds: Border Collies usually come out near the top, and Afghan Hounds towards the bottom. A lot depends what their ‘job’ is. A Border Collie has to perform a whole range of skills, work in all conditions, and be biddable towards their hander. The original Afghan Hounds were hunters: bred to run fast. So the differing level of intelligence between breeds may be due to the size of skill-set required for their job, and whether they need to work cooperatively with their handlers. But that doesn’t mean an Afghan Hound isn’t capable of learning: all dogs are intelligent.
Temperament
Some dogs are feisty or unflappable; others are over-sensitive, and ready to flee at the first sign of danger. Sometimes this will be the same across a breed (or a particular line within that breed), but it will also be down to other factors. Remember that every dog is unique. Labradors are thought of as good companions: obedient and sociable. In reality there’s a range of temperament, which is why it can come as a shock to owners if their dog shows signs of aggression when they assumed they would always be friendly to everyone and everything. Genes create a template, but life experiences will affect how that develops into emotions, personality and temperament (see later).
Senses and instinct
Dogs see, smell and hear better than us. This means that sometimes we struggle to understand what’s upsetting or exciting them. They might bark unexpectedly in the house when we haven’t heard anything. Or, if you have a dog that enjoys tracking scents, the first sign of trouble might be their upright tail disappearing into the undergrowth.
Sight hounds (such as Greyhounds) are very stimulated by movement; Bloodhounds track scent; and Border Collies (as well as being visual dogs) have very sensitive hearing, to enable a farmer to communicate with them over long distances. But individual dogs also have a sense that’s most important to them, for some the taste and smell of cheese will wipe out all other distractions around them; for others it’s the joy of movement, or the feel of a ball in their mouth.
Dogs that are particularly focused on how things smell, love to follow a scent trail. They will know if a deer walked down a particular path in the woods, even if it was several hours or days ago. Whether they do anything about it will depend on your dog’s breed and personality, and the training they’ve had. Get used to interpreting the world from your dog’s point of view. This will help you to predict their behaviour, and what management and training will be required.
Terriers love to dig, as do a lot of other breeds, especially when young. Hearing movement, or smelling something interesting underground, can trigger this behaviour. Rather than them ruining your lawn, or newly planted flower border, it’s best to provide them with a digging zone in the garden, where you can hide toys. You could also train them to dig on cue, and show them suitable places on walks where they can busy themselves with their favourite hobby.
Border Collies can become fixated on things that move quickly, like cars, bikes and joggers. If they’re not helped with this, it can become a serious problem – both for their own safety, and the safety of their targets.
Providing outlets
Dogs need outlets for their desires and skills: natural drives will find a way out, whether you want them to or not. Some behaviours are endearing, like a Labradoodle (a natural retriever) bringing you a shoe. Not chewed, just proudly held. Behaviours like this can either be ignored or encouraged. For the behaviours that are not so welcome, you will need to provide suitable alternative outlets, and teach your dog that certain things that are not allowed. This will be through a combination of prevention (fences, keeping them on lead etc.) and reward-based training (especially ‘leave’ and 'come').
Call of the wild
Wolves are predators, and use many skills to catch their prey, including tracking, stalking, chasing, out-manoeuvring and grabbing. Then they’ll kill and consume their prey, or save it for later by burying it. Some breeds of dog retain the drive to hunt so strongly, including the kill, that they cannot be trusted off the lead. Huskies and ex-racing Greyhounds can come under this category. Other breeds have shortened sequences. An Irish Setter will spot prey and stand still, staring at it (the ‘set’). A Springer Spaniel will quarter the ground (running back and forth in a zig-zag pattern) to flush out birds. A Labrador will be sent to retrieve game. A Border Collie retains the longest sequence – the only bits missing are the grab and kill. This has been ‘bred in’ to them, but also comes with training – a farmer will still have to train a young dog not to bite the sheep.
Some pet dogs retain the last part of the sequence, the storing of food for leaner times, and hide toys and bones all around the house and garden. Although we might laugh at a Shih Tzu burying a squeaky bone behind a cushion on the sofa, it hints at how strong their genetic link to the past can be.
Practise makes a habit
Any working dog (or breed that has retained parts of the hunting sequence), will enjoy chasing moving things, and grabbing things with their mouths. If they have a couple of successes e.g. a Lurcher running off and catching a rabbit, they will enjoy it so much they’ll want to do it again, making future training much harder.
It’s always best to do a lot of early training; teaching your dog not to hunt, or at least to hunt under control by following their handler’s commands. Dogs need a lot of training to get this right. Working breeds who don’t ‘work’ still need training to channel their innate skills and motivation – they don’t know they’re ‘only’ pets. This means providing alternatives, like playing fetch or running over agility equipment; plus training a solid ‘leave’ to all birds/ potential prey. If you don’t, you run the risk of them learning something you wish they hadn’t learnt by themselves!
Teamwork
Part of the reason dogs are sociable is that taking down larger prey requires a well-functioning team. Dogs love a group chase, which is fine if they’re just running after falling leaves, or a fun bit of ‘can’t catch me’ in the park or on the beach – not so good if they run off together after a sheep. The benefit to us is that they love to work cooperatively, so we can teach them to do what we want them to do, as long as we help them to find enjoyment and motivation for doing it.
Finding a mate
If dogs are in breeding condition, the desire to find a mate, and protect their territory from rivals, may take precedence over everything else. Even if they’ve had early training, young males (or females in season) can appear to forget everything they’ve ever been taught, and suddenly become unwilling to do what’s asked of them.
Females in season go through various stages, from definitely not wanting other male dogs around them (even becoming fearful of interaction, which can lead to the development of phobias) – to actively flirting. That’s the point where they might run off on a walk, or find a way out the garden. Then it’ll be a couple of months anxious wait to find out the result!
To neuter, or not to neuter…
The increasing levels of testosterone in young male dogs from 5 months of age can cause a lot of frustration, for both dogs and their owners. This can lead to the formation of ‘bad’ behaviour. Which is why (unless your dog is destined for breeding or showing, or is so nervous that testosterone is the only thing getting them out the house), it can be a good idea to get your dog neutered from 6 months or later for certain breeds and individuals. Removing a young dog’s testicles won’t turn him into an angelic companion who listens to your every request. But castrating males can decrease frustration, drive and competitiveness. This can make them become easier to manage, increase their willingness to listen to training cues, and will tend to help them get on better with the other dogs in the park (due to a reduced competitive drive, and a reduced risk of them being ‘put in their place’ by other dogs). Vets, breeders, rescue organisations, trainers, and behaviourists all have different views about castration. Namely, when it should be done, and whether it should be done at all. This will be based on health effects, ideal physical development, and changes to behaviour. The best thing to do is ask around, get lots of views, then make the decision that you feel will be best for your dog. Castration isn’t a quick fix to magically create a calm, biddable dog - there’s still a lot of training that needs to be done! And if you won't be getting your dog castrated until they are fully physically developed, which may take up to 2 years, then be prepared for lots of extra training and management, to make sure they're not learning the wrong lessons.
Spaying female dogs doesn’t have as noticeable a behavioural effect, but it can even out the temperament in some individuals. It also means they won’t be pestered during their two seasons a year (each lasting three weeks), and they’ll have less desire to run off. This also means greater flexibility for their care e.g. at the dog walker’s, trips away, or visits to friends’ houses. Again, there’s lots of debate about when bitches should be spayed (ask your vet, your breeder, fellow dog owners, your trainer etc.), and find out the pros and cons before you make your decision.
Pack living and dominance
Dogs are social creatures, like us. Wolves live in family groups, so it’s rare for strangers to join once the family group is established. This is probably why wolves have been seen as aggressive in the past, as collections in zoos and animal parks tended to be made up of non-family groupings. Although dogs can happily live in groups, some seem to prefer to be the only dog in a household. Dogs also seem to enjoy human companionship, but there are some independent ones who will try and escape our homes and go on long adventures on their own, unwilling to return.
Discussions about pack hierarchy and social signals often centre around submission/ appeasement and dominance/ aggression. But this is no different to any other species on the planet that has to find a way to communicate with others of the same species (or even members of a different species). If you can win, fight; if you can’t, apologise and run away. It’s often about self-preservation, and cost-benefit analysis. Humans do the same.
There are two main types of leaders in social groupings: combative (who take charge by force); and peaceful (who win people over with empathy, and a quieter form of control). Both have their problems, the peaceful ones can be easily overpowered by the others, but forceful leaders can create a destructive environment. This instability requires a calmer, quieter leader to sort out the mess. It’s related to something called ‘behavioural game theory’, and can be seen throughout the animal kingdom, as well as in office boardrooms.
Generally groups of social animals can live together in relative harmony, especially when times are good and there is no stress. But if resources are scarce, or an individual feels threatened or unsafe, then they’re likely to go for self-preservation at all costs. Same as us. But just because there is a recognition of dominance and submission within interactions between dogs, that doesn't mean it should form part of their training. People trying to 'be the alpha' leads to a lot of negative training experiences, and simply isn't needed. Our relationships with dogs can be much more cooperative, and much richer, than some of old ways which were often borne out of a desperate desire to be 'in charge' and not be questioned.
Intention movements
All animals, including humans, have a vast array of ways in which they communicate with each other. Signs of sociability develop tolerance within a group, act as a ‘keep going’ signal for friendly encounters, and reduce the likelihood of aggression occurring. Other signals relate to feeding, exploring, play and ‘posturing’ in the lead up to a potential fight. Intention movements are small changes in body posture that signal to others what an individual is about to do. For example, a bird in a flock that is feeding on the ground might flap its wings. Other birds will flap their wings too, then the flock will take off together. In dogs the classic example is the ‘play bow’ (front end on the ground, bottom in the air). But movements can be much smaller than this, like a quick intake of breath, or a weight change in the muscles.
Leading and following
If the ‘leader’ makes a decision and moves off, what happens if no one else follows? They can either continue to suggest an action, and succeed or not-succeed; go it alone, if it’s worth the risk; or stop and wait until others are ready. They could insist, through the use of punishment, that others do go a certain direction, but it would require a lot of energy, and wouldn’t be as successful as if the group had wanted to move that way.
If the leader has provided rewards before (e.g. found a good source of food or water, or knows when it’s time to find some shade) then the others are more likely to follow, and their intention movements will be acted on. This is why it can appear you know what your dog is thinking, or vice versa. It’s just a very subtle form of communication. When it works well it’s amazing, and shows a strong connection. But it can also be frustrating. If your dog is on high alert for the smallest sign from you that it might be time for a walk/ game/ snack etc, they never settle, which means neither can you. Because once that idea has been triggered, they will start to consciously think about it ‘Hmm, how nice it would be to go for a walk now, I’ll go get my lead, and maybe bark a few times.’
Tuning in
It’s vital, while training dogs, to tune into these intention movements. Toilet training becomes faster, because you can see them thinking about going (circling, sniffing the ground etc.). You can teach a stronger leave or stay, because you can spot the muscle twitch or glance that means they’re thinking about getting up/ grabbing the food. You can also remind them to sit before they jump up in excitement. If you spot a lip curl or hear a growl, or see them holding their breath, you can diffuse a potentially difficult situation before things escalate. Spot the small stuff before the big stuff happens.
EXPERIENCES - Nurture
Genes play a role in the way dogs behave, but the nurture side (how a dog grows up in the environment they’re in) is equally important. Their genes have prepared them to interpret the world in a certain way, but what happens after they’re born will affect their behaviour too. For example, it's in a person's or dog's DNA to 'feel' emotions, whether that's anger or happiness, or the myriad of other emotions, but when these are felt, how intensely they are felt, and what learning surrounds them, will be greatly affected by the experiences they have.
DNA is only the starting point
A Golden Retriever, although genetically prepared to fetch things, will still need to learn what a ball is, that it can be fun to play with, and that people get excited when it’s brought to them. But once they’re rewarded for doing it, they should learn quicker than, say, a Malamute (whose primary role is to pull a sled, not fetch things). Even if genes create the foundations for a confident dog, they might not turn out that way – it will depend on their environment, the way they’re brought up, and the experiences they have. ‘Nurture’ encourages or discourages genetic tendencies, which include natural abilities, sociability, trainability, and level of emotional intelligence (i.e. their ability to cope and learn).
Their birth home
A confident mother should (if their genes have predisposed them to), raise a well-adjusted puppy. An attentive breeder who invests in their early education should create an inquisitive, happy, confident puppy, capable of dealing with life’s challenges. Then it’s all up to their new owner: that’s us. This can feel like a lot of pressure, and sometimes that anxiety can create its own problems. Like when we avoid situations for fear of it going wrong, or over-do the socialisation, without paying attention to whether our puppy is coping. We can make or break our young dogs with the experiences they have. It’s a sobering thought.
Attachment theory
The way a dog responds to us, or to people and other animals in general, will reflect the experiences they had growing up. Attachment theory is a way of categorising responses towards the primary caregiver – i.e. how a child behaves with their parent, especially during reunions, when their parent has been temporarily unavailable. The forms of attachment that puppies develop during their time in the litter may be reduced, enhanced or altered during their new life with us. At its simplest you could describe a dog as either attached (dependant on you, happy to comply) or unattached (independent, not listening to instructions), but there are actually several types.
Secure attached
This is the ideal scenario. This means our dogs can cope being left alone for short periods, or be cared for by other people, without pining for us. They are also excited to be around us, and will respond well to our requests, with a relaxed and happy demeanour. They will be able to adapt quickly to new or challenging environments and situations.
Insecure attached
There are three types of insecure attachment, all of which can lead to a lot of stress, both for our dogs and us. They may simply be under-attached, and not care what we, or anyone else, has to say. This might stem from genetics – some breeds are very independently minded, and don’t seem to crave companionship with humans, let alone work with us. It can be made worse by an under-stimulating upbringing, and lack of early (reward-based) training.
Confused-attached happens when dogs want to approach or seek physical contact, but are unsure about what will happen, wondering if will they be hit (or something else they find unpleasant like being put in a crate, or picked up), or stroked gently in a way they like. This may be through fear, incorrect or heavy-handed punishment, or previous bad experiences. You might see this if you’ve taken in a rescue dog.
The third type of insecure attachment is hyper-attached. Dogs desire companionship from a human or group of humans, but sometimes they come to rely on us too much. If they become overly dependent on us to provide comfort, they won’t be able to cope when they’re separated from us. This can result in severe separation anxiety, and a very over-the-top greeting when we return. It can create a life lived in a never-ending cycle of stress.
Early learning at the breeders
We cannot directly influence what happens while our potential puppies are under seven weeks of age. But we can choose a responsible breeder: one who will give the puppies the best start in life, and promote the development of secure attachment. A puppy’s early development will be influenced by the environment, their mother, and the behaviour of their siblings. A nervous mother can create nervous puppies, whether genetically (because of a predisposition to anxiety and stress in her DNA), or by being a nervous role-model (because of a stressful environment, or lack of socialisation and habituation when she herself was a puppy). A bullying or angry mother (or siblings), can create fearful puppies, or ones can become easily defensive or try to fight back. Ideally a mother should have a stable personality: loving her offspring, but teaching them important boundaries as well.
The number of brothers and sisters, and the ratios between the sexes, has been shown to affect a puppy’s behaviour long-term. For example, a big litter (if not controlled well by a breeder) can lead to a lot of competitive behaviour if resources are scarce. The breeder also directly influences puppies’ behaviour through any handling carried out, and experiences they plan (from toileting on grass, getting used to a washing machine, or helping them learn to play independently away from their mother or siblings). Puppies also need to be taught how to be calm around other animals, to be happy to meet people, and be curious about new experiences.
Early learning with us
Once our puppy arrives home, we take over the mother’s role to love, encourage, supervise, teach, support, and stop dangerous/ unsafe behaviours. This all affects the type of attachments that develop between us and our puppy, and their attachment to other family members, and any pets in the house.
There’s a short window of opportunity before a puppy is sixteen weeks of age, in which to complete most of the socialisation (to people and animals) and habituation (events, things, smells etc). They can learn after this, but at a much slower rate. But if a puppy is rushed or over-faced, they may become fearful of certain things or people, and it will make our job much harder. If they are secure attached, they will look to us for support, but will also be independent enough to cope alone and work things out for themselves.
Social skills
Through socialisation, we need to get puppies used to a wide variety of people and animals (the list is exhaustive but includes: men, women, children, elderly, disabled, different skin tones, different clothing, equipment like wheelchairs and pushchairs, and other pets at home or farm animals, squirrels and birds…). The more they experience, the more they learn, and the more adaptable they become. But only if they don’t become scared or overwhelmed: in which case the opposite will happen. They become sensitised instead, and develop phobias, suddenly unwilling to approach people or dogs, and ultimately becoming defensive (aggressive), or so fearful they run away if given the opportunity.
If a puppy gets squashed by an over-enthusiastic older dog, they might become afraid of meeting dogs in the future. Possibly just that one dog, but there’s a risk that they’ll generalise their fear to all dogs, especially if they get growled at during their next encounter. The earlier in their life and experience this happens, the greater the risk. If your puppy has only met two dogs, it needs to go well. By the time they’ve had forty happy encounters, they may be able to realise it was just that dog, in that place, and that the others are still okay.
Habituation
The same rules apply to habituation: getting them used to sights, sounds, smells, different surfaces etc. Experiences range from learning to walk calmly over a bridge when they can see through the gaps to the water below, to not being scared by the vacuum cleaner. If you get it right, your dog will be able to cope. If you push too fast, too soon, they could become sensitised and develop a phobia. If you choose to do nothing, your dog might still develop a phobia, because they’d never experienced that this thing is okay, so get a shock during their first encounter with it. So, you will actively have to teach them, and the pressure is on to do a good job. It shouldn’t be a chore though. Working with puppies is fun, and they’re not young for long – enjoy it! As long as you pay attention to your dog’s body language, and keep encouraging and praising them, then they should turn out to be well-adjusted adults.
If you’ve taken on a rescue dog, you will have a lot of ‘undoing’ to do, as well as building up their tolerance of things they’ve never come across. Again, don’t think of this as a chore. Welcome the time to get to know your new dog: the change in them, as they become more confident, should be a very rewarding experience.
Learning from others
Dogs share experiences, and pass on important lessons like where to find food, how to guard territory, and how to play. This can work in your favour if your puppy learns from your well-behaved older dog, but can be a nightmare if bad behaviours are shared. It’s best to train your dogs individually as well as in a group, so you can maintain control, and it allows you to increase the training for the one that need it.
Seeking harmony
To live on your own, when all your needs are met, is easy. You know what you like, you have your routines, and your favourite things to do. There’s no one to quarrel with, no one to steal (or insist on sharing) your things. When dogs live with others (either canine or human): they could persist in protecting food, resources, comfort and territory. But to live in a harmonious social group, with the benefits that brings (protection of resources or territory, potential mates, friendships etc.), they need to share… to occasionally not get what they want.
Big dogs sometimes self-handicap themselves when playing with small or young dogs, so that a game can continue e.g. not running as fast, or not pulling as hard when playing tug. Maybe when we think they’re doing our bidding, they’re actually choosing to allow us to dish out rules as a form of self-handicapping, when they could just bite us and walk out the door, and find someone else. They could be accepting our direction, to maintain group cohesion. You might occasionally do things that benefit your dog more than you, by giving in to certain requests (like your dog wanting to turn left out the driveway on a walk, instead of right). You might shrug and say you’re doing it for a ‘quiet life’, but really, it’s to maintain harmony. Of course having a ‘good nature’, and sharing, can be taken advantage of, which is where bad behaviour can creep in.
To live in harmony requires both parties to develop empathy, tolerance and clear communication. When a relationship between two people begins to break down, communication disappears, along with tolerance; and empathy is replaced with shouting and accusations. It’s no different with our dogs, but it’s their bad behaviour that we begin to notice, and blame them for this, without realising how it started. It’s often about finding compromises, and a way to live where both your and your dog’s needs are met. But it’s not easy to maintain harmony – it has to be worked at, rather than be taken for granted.
AGE, HEALTH AND STRESS
Your dog’s age influences their behaviour: from exuberant puppy to slowed-down oldie. There’s often a noticeable shift that occurs when they move up a stage, and it can be unsettling during these times, for both our dogs and us. How a dog feels will affect their mood, and therefore their behaviour. This might be a temporary state, like a mild food intolerance, being overtired, or having a headache/ toothache; or it may be a more permanent condition.
Puppyhood
Puppies either seem to be asleep, or charging through life in a whirlwind of excitement and razor-sharp teeth. Young puppies, having left their mum, brothers and sisters at about 7 or 8 weeks of age, have to learn to adapt to their new (very different) situation. It’s a stressful and challenging time for them. They have to learn where to toilet, how to cope alone, what things are and aren’t acceptable, who to play with (and how to play), when and what to eat, what to be afraid of and what’s okay, and who their new family and friends are.
Nervous puppies will take longer to find their feet than more confident ones. The bonus of getting a puppy (rather than an older dog), is that they seem naturally keen to please us, to get it right; which can make training a lot easier. But they can’t focus for long, are easily distracted, and their emotions change quickly from excitement, to anxiety, to frustration, to happiness, to anger, and so on. It can be hard to follow what’s going on in their mind, and to identify what’s triggered their behaviour. A puppy’s behaviour often gets worse when they’re over-tired or over-stimulated. Once they’ve had a snooze, they should wake up feeling a little more in control.
Puppies are persistent explorers, which is why puppy-proofing a house and garden is so important. Ask yourself what they might eat, where they could escape, what might fall on them, what could hurt them, etc. They also use their teeth a lot, to explore, to play, and to control the behaviour of others. To improve this, you need to know why they’re using their teeth in that particular moment. If they’re exploring, prevent their access to dangerous items, and provide new toys, as well as teaching ‘leave’; if they want to play, empty the toy box onto the floor, and spend time playing; if they’re trying to control you, do some reward-based training to improve cooperation...and make sure they’re not overtired.
Adolescents
Unfortunately, the puppy stage doesn’t last long. The window of opportunity to teach your dog everything they need to know about their world (the time in which they will readily listen to you), closes when their teenage life starts – at about 5 months of age (20 weeks). And with some it can happen even sooner. This rebellious streak continues until they settle into adult life, and can seem like an eternity!
It’s linked both to a change in hormones (they’re growing up), and the amount of time they’ve spent in their new home, learning the rules (or rather, what they can get away with). It’s a time of testing boundaries They want to know why they should come when they’re called, why they should allow you to brush/ carry / stroke them, or put them in a crate, or leave them so you can go to the toilet or wash your hair. They question why they should sit, go to their bed, walk nicely on a lead, not eat that poo, not chase the cat, etc. A lot of ‘naughty’ behaviours in puppies and adolescents are just part of the difficult business of growing up.
They’re also more emotional, can become more sensitive to sounds/ people/ objects, and do things we weren’t expecting. They can also appear to forget everything they’d learnt up to that point, because their brains are constantly ‘rewiring’, learning and unlearning, changing connections, adding new bits and losing unnecessary information. It’s a confusing time for them, and us. It’s important to remind yourself that it’s ‘just a stage’, and the plus point is that it’s shorter in duration than for human teenagers! Extra training is needed, and a lot of management and patience. However, it can also be a time full of fun and wonderful memories – don’t wish it away too quickly.
Adult dogs
The age at which a dog becomes an adult varies between breeds, but as an average, it’s about 18 months. You might start noticing changes to their behaviour – not all of them welcome. They might become more annoyed or anxious of things that only mildly bothered them before. They might become more protective of their personal space/ belongings/ you/ your home. They certainly know their own mind by this stage (you might have started calling them stubborn). Where once they’d been sweet to every dog when they were younger, they might now start putting other dogs in their place. They will gradually become less tolerant of puppies. This is a natural part of becoming an adult – knowing the rules, and making sure others toe the line as well. Sometimes this is just normal dog behaviour, but it can easily escalate into something more serious, so you should be ready to do a bit of remedial training if necessary. Notice the things that make you feel uncomfortable, and teach them a better way of coping with the situation e.g. encouraging them to walk away from trouble rather than allowing them to confront their trigger.
Old age
Breeds (and even individuals within those breeds) age at different rates, and life expectancies vary a lot. Signs include greying hair around their muzzle, eyes and paws, and age-related health issues like cataracts or increasing levels of arthritis. They will be generally stiffer, sleep for longer, and be more reluctant to have fun/ go for walks etc. They don’t want to be bothered by puppies and young dogs. They become even more resistant to change, preferring their normal routines. Some may even develop the canine version of dementia, which can be very distressing for them, and us.
‘Baby’ dogs
Pet dogs have become neotonised, which means they appear and act younger than their biological age. Some dogs never seem to ‘grow up’, and are in a permanent state of excitement and wonder about the world. Many breeds are loved because they still look like puppies, even when they’re adults. For the dogs that do ‘grow up’, they need a job, and you’ll have to work hard to fulfil their needs. For the dogs that never grow up, you can look forward to a lifetime of fun.
Genes
Dogs are sometimes born with congenital defects, which they either cope with, or they might require operations to fix the problem. Physical or neurological issues can also develop later in life. Careful breeding is an important factor in this, as many breeds have specific health issues. The Kennel Club promotes health screening, such as hip scoring, to help lessen these problems. Although cross-breeds are often thought of as healthier, they’re still inheriting genes from both parents, so might develop issues. Especially if their parents are similar crosses. Add in unregulated breeding (and reduced testing), and there’s a risk that particular cross-breeds will develop their own specific conditions over time. Especially if they’re mainly being bred for physical appearance. But the intention, for a cross like a Cavapoo, is that they retain the fun and close companionship of the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, while having non-shedding coat, and reduced risk of hereditary illnesses, of the Miniature or Toy Poodle.
Illness and pain
A poorly dog will show changes in their behaviour, like we do when we’re not well. Some illnesses will be short-lived, but others may go undetected for longer, including the growth of tumours or nerve damage. It’s very important for your dog to have a full health-check from your vet before you try to solve their behaviour problems, especially in cases where the changes have happened suddenly. No amount of training will help cure a health issue. Once your dog is fully recovered, their behaviour may return to ‘normal’, or they may require counter-conditioning or confidence building, especially if their recovery was long and difficult.
Injury
A dog in pain will be less tolerant of being touched or fussed over, will be less willing to go out for a walk, and may become defensive around other dogs or people. This might be a temporary change, that would improve with rest, or following recovery from surgery after a traumatic injury to bones etc, or it might signal the onset of a longer-term problem like arthritis. It’s important to consult with your vet: they can recommend the best course of action. Training, especially for puppies and young dogs, will need to continue during any recovery periods, but you will have to adapt this carefully to what they’re physically able to do. Dogs who aren’t allowed to walk much, and are confined to a crate for long periods, can benefit from brain training exercises to help them deal with the frustration they will feel.
Stress
Acute stress is intense, but relatively short-lived, like a trip to the vets for a dog who hates going. It’s a traumatic experience, but it stops once the trigger has gone (i.e. when you leave the vets). Your dog’s brain and body will have been flooded with stress chemicals like adrenaline and cortisol, but they will gradually lessen, and return to normal levels. Dogs in acute stress will not be able to learn anything new – they’re merely reacting to what’s going on around them, and trying to survive.
Chronic stress may be at a lower level, but it’s there all the time. Your dog is unable to get away from, or remove, the cause of their stress, and their body remains in a state of alertness and discomfort. The longer it goes on, the more harmful the effects. This makes it harder to reverse, and can cause related health issues. If you have rescued a dog from a puppy farm, or similar traumatic environment, it may take a while for them to recover. But a dog who is alone at home, waiting for company, may also be experiencing chronic stress. Even if they’re not demonstrating behaviour associated with separation anxiety (e.g. barking, howling, destructive behaviour, toileting indoors), that doesn’t necessarily mean they’re coping. Chronic stress affects a dog’s ability to cope in other areas of life as well, and limits their learning abilities and adaptability.
Stress can play a big part in behaviour issues. You only have to think about how we behave when we’re put under pressure to realise how big an impact this has. If you’re in an environment that causes you fear, you will behave differently to when you’re happy and content. The best way forward is to remove the stress, which will immediately help to improve your dog’s behaviour. This isn’t always possible of course, but you should seek to help your dog cope with life, before you think about punishing them for behaving poorly.
However, the aim isn’t to rid your dog of all possible stress – we need a certain amount in our lives. It helps us, and our dogs, learn better ways of doing things – it’s the incentive for change. Even the excitement of going out for a walk is stressful, but this is a more pleasurable type – it’s the anticipation of having a good time.
The body language of stress
During stressful situations, some signals will occur as a natural result of the stress, and some will be consciously made in order to communicate with the cause of the stress, or to other individuals who might be involved or affected by the situation. An animal or person who is feeling several emotions at once, and is unsure of how to act, is in conflict, and the resulting signals can be confusing. A young dog who wants to meet another dog, but is afraid of being growled at, wants to both approach and escape at the same time. They might jump towards the other dog in excitement, then suddenly back away with their tail between their legs, or start yapping… only to charge in for another approach.
We can’t always make situations okay for our dogs, but it’s really important that we get good at recognising what they’re saying, and act accordingly whenever possible. Hackles going up are a sign of stress (obvious in some breeds, hidden in others). This could lead to them bolting in fear, becoming more afraid of the trigger, or standing their ground and becoming aggressive. By acting in the moment to calm situations down whenever they happen, it reduces your dog’s stress levels both for that time, and future occurrences.
The four fs
During stressful encounters we tend to think our dogs will either stand up for themselves (fight) or run away (flight). But this ‘flight or fight’ response isn’t the whole picture: there are two more categories of behaviour that a dog might show. The third is known by various words including ‘flirt’ or ‘fiddle about’. It involves excessive, chaotic, non-essential body movements (often with play signals, but carried out in a ‘wilder’ way). These allow communication to the other animal (or person) that they mean no harm, and it allows them to expend their pent-up energy/ fears/ frustrations. Puppies are often seen doing this when approaching objects or animals they’re not sure of: they might run around them, leap about, and do lots of play-bows. If they direct this behaviour towards their owner, they might start jumping up repeatedly, and become uncontrollable on lead.
The fourth ‘F’ is ‘freeze’. This is when all body movements stop, and the dog appears very stiff and tense. They might even hold their breath. If the source of their stress doesn’t move away (or turn out to be friendly), they will suddenly switch to another response e.g. fight. If someone says their dog ‘suddenly’ bit another dog with no warning, it’s likely that they’d frozen first, but that this hadn’t been noticed by their owner (or the other dog). If there is no escape, or the situation intensifies, they might remain frozen for a long time, which can lead to ‘learned helplessness’. This is triggered when physical or emotional pain is unpredictable, uncontrollable and/ or inescapable.
Coping mechanisms
Active coping is about escaping or fighting, and is linked to increases in heart rate and blood pressure. In other words, it’s a readiness for action. Tension is created, and then released, by running away, or by displaying defensive or aggressive behaviour.
Passive coping is about giving up: the extreme end of this is ‘preparing to die’. It’s linked to a decrease in heart rate and blood pressure. The result is a general ‘dullness’ that becomes depression, an unwillingness to move, and the individual stops reacting to pain. They become progressively more shut down, eventually succumbing to the stress and all its symptoms. It can be a gradual decline, or happen in a short space of time if the source of fear is strong enough, and if there’s nothing they can do to change the situation. The condition can be fatal.
Stress signals and conflict behaviours allow us to understand what our dogs are going through. We need to interpret their behaviour correctly by closely observing their body language for clues, and come up with appropriate training plans. For example, if your puppy is madly scratching themselves during a puppy class, it could be a sign of stress, rather than the result of fleas. Spotting this means you’re in a better position to help them cope, by making the training easier, doing confidence building exercises, or joining an alternative class if that one continues to be an issue for them.
Stress signals
Below are examples of body language to spot during stressful, or potentially stressful moments. Once you learn to recognise the signs, you’ll see them everywhere!
Facial stress signals include:
• blinking
• dilated pupils
• facial veins enlarged
• furrowed brow
• staring, hard eye (round rather than almond shaped)
• whale eye (seeing the whites of their eye)
• quick movements of their head
• hyper-vigilance
• licking lips
• panting or holding their breath
• intense sniffing (head down, away from problem maybe)
• chattering teeth
• yawning
Body stress signals include:
• approach/ avoid repeated several times
• a shift in body weight
• moving away
• freezing
• standing square (defensive)
• shrinking (fearful)
• becoming hyperactive
• moving slower than normal
• jumping up/ lunging/ grabbing things
• mounting dogs/ people’s legs/ objects
• pacing
• grooming themselves and scratching
• tail held high and arched over the spine (confident/defensive)
• tail held low or tucked between back legs (fearful)
• tail might be still or moving fast, but not travelling far on each movement
• quivering muscles
• full body shake
Vocal stress signals are usually:
• barking
• growling
• howling
• whining/ whimpering
• screaming
Signals involving scent include:
• urinating to mark a place, and scratching the ground afterwards
• expelling anal glands
• wiping their bottom against a person or dog
Interpreting the signals
When it comes to discussions of dog body language, it’s important to remember that different trainers, behaviourists and scientists may have opposing views about certain signals, depending on their personal experiences. The vast majority may even agree on something, but that doesn’t necessarily mean they have the ‘right’ answer. It’s important to keep an open mind. After all, until an animal is able to communicate with us in our language, everything they do is open to interpretation. For example, if a dog looks away from another dog, is that appeasement, a cut-off signal, a sign of stress, or that they’re bored or frightened by the other dog and are desperately trying to find something else to do? We can only go by our ‘best guess’ until someone (or the animal we are working with) proves otherwise.
The beginning of 'problem' behaviours
Behaviour issues often stem from unresolved emotional issues, for example the fear of being attacked by another dog, or the fear of being left alone.
Like any living thing, there are things a dog desires, and things they require to stay alive. Although some are vital for life, and some are just added extras, they’re all important to your dog. It’s the absence of these, and the way your dog goes about securing them, that can create conflict with us, and the development of bad/ worrying behaviours.
Food and water are basic requirements, ones which we provide for by regulating what, when and how much they eat and drink. But that doesn’t mean it satisfies our dog’s desire for more or tastier food. They might never feel full, so are always on the lookout for extras. They might struggle to be patient and wait for us to dish out their meal. They might have an insatiable need to chew something, anything, and end up eating your favourite chair. As opportunist feeders (wild animals don’t know when the next meal is coming, so it’s best for them to eat what’s available and store any excess for later), they will always be ready to take advantage of situations that arise. This might be the Sunday roast on the kitchen table, or a sandwich being eaten by a family picnicking in the park – even a maggoty rabbit carcass half buried in a field. It’s all potential food to dogs.
The more success they have, the quicker and more resourceful they get. The one benefit for us though, is that food can be a powerful incentive during training.
Dogs also crave company, and attention seeking is one way they can ensure we listen to them. They might paw on our clothing, or bite our feet, jump up at us, bark, whine, or nuzzle into us when we’re trying to do some work. They want our time, our presence, the chance to play or go on a walk. The more insecure the dog, the worse this can be – they can’t cope alone, so need us constantly as emotional support. With a bit of training, and a few other changes, balance can be restored. And really, it’s just a sign they love us, and that’s got to be a good thing, hasn’t it?
Recognising and responding to your dog's behaviour and emotions
Some things that we call behaviour problems are just natural (but unwanted) parts of canine behaviour. As much as they need training and management, they also require our understanding.
We find it hard enough living with (and getting on with) other people, and they’re the same species as us! We need to find out what’s normal for dog in general, and our dog in particular. Then we can adapt our homes and routines to make sure they have the best lives we can provide. They give us a lot in return, in companionship and happiness. But sometimes things go wrong, and problems develop.
In every case it’s important to work out why it’s happened, and why it’s continuing. It might help you to put yourself in your dog’s position. For example, if you’ve been playing with your dog and giving them lots of your time, and then abruptly stop to take a phone call, don’t be surprised if they start to bark at you, or try to pull your slippers off. Try to anticipate it might happen, and do something about it, or help them through it when it does happen. Don’t get cross, get clever! Not sure what to do? Experiment - if a behaviour improves, your plan is working, if nothing changes (or it gets worse), then you’ll need to try something else. In the example above, you could get a chew on the way to answering the phone, so your dog can settle at your feet. Or stroke them, while you’re talking. Or get someone else in the house to take over playing while you’re busy. Remember the dog in this example has been having a great time, and can’t understand why that’s suddenly stopped. Let them down gently!
Reward-based training
If a dog is rewarded for doing something, then that behaviour or action will happen more - because the dog has a good reason to repeat it. Rewards can be food, play, toys, fuss, praise, walking, sniffing, running, digging, exploring, and having social time with other dogs or people. Rewards increase motivation and willingness. If the focus is always on rewarding wanted behaviour, we set up our dog's environment, routines and training to ensure they will succeed and can be rewarded. That will increase the frequency, duration and accuracy of all those lovely wanted behaviours. And as a natural consequence, all the unwanted behaviours will diminish. It's important to recognise there will be a time when training hasn't caught up with real-life situations. A dog who has a shaky recall might need to be on a longline. A dog who jumps on visitors might need to be on a lead or behind a baby gate. A dog who steals food from the kitchen might have to be kept out the room. A dog who is reactive to other dogs may have to be walked in different areas or walked in a headcollar. These management strategies mean that a dog won't be practicing unwanted behaviours, and you will have no reason to punish or correct them for getting it wrong. Reward-based training is so adaptable it can be used for any behaviour, as shaping allows a behaviour to be broken down into small and achievable steps...that build towards the final goal. It's a kind, ethical and enjoyable way to train.
(c) Sarah Crockford
adapted from 'Help! My Dog has Issues', published in 2019